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Crying is a natural and instinctive vocalization produced by infants as a means of communication. It is one of the earliest forms of expression and serves as a way for infants to communicate their needs, discomfort, or distress. Here are some key aspects of infant crying: It is important to note that excessive or prolonged…

Reflexive sounds, also known as vegetative sounds, are the earliest vocalizations produced by infants. They are called “reflexive” because they are primarily involuntary and serve basic physiological functions rather than intentional communication. These sounds are instinctive and are not under the infant’s conscious control. Here are some examples of reflexive sounds: It is important to…

The prelinguistic stage refers to the early phase of communication development before a child starts using words and forming sentences. During this stage, infants engage in various nonverbal communication behaviors and vocalizations, setting the foundation for later language development. Here are key aspects of the prelinguistic stage: The prelinguistic stage is an important period of…

Phonological development refers to the process by which children acquire and develop the ability to produce and perceive the sounds of their native language. It involves the acquisition of the phonemes (individual speech sounds) and the rules that govern their organization within a language. Here are key aspects and stages of phonological development: Phonological development…

The nature-nurture debate is a longstanding and ongoing discussion in psychology and other fields about the relative influences of genetics (nature) and environmental factors (nurture) on human development and behavior. It seeks to understand how genetics and the environment interact and contribute to various aspects of an individual’s traits, abilities, and characteristics. Nature refers to…

Language acquisition refers to the process by which humans acquire the ability to understand and use language. It is a complex and remarkable cognitive achievement that occurs naturally in early childhood. Language acquisition involves the development of both receptive language skills (understanding spoken or written language) and expressive language skills (producing and communicating through spoken…

Psycholinguistics is a field of study that combines principles of psychology and linguistics to investigate how humans acquire, produce, comprehend, and process language. It explores the cognitive processes and mechanisms underlying language use, including the mental representation of words and grammar, language production and comprehension, language development, and the relationship between language and thought. Key…

We used eye-tracking during natural reading to study how semantic control and representation mechanisms interact for the successful comprehension of sentences, by manipulating sentence context and single-word meaning. Specifically, we examined whether a word’s semantic characteristic (concreteness) affects first fixation and gaze durations (FFDs and GDs) and whether it interacts with the predictability of a…

In response to intense pressure from policy makers and the public, technology companies have enacted a range of policies aimed at reducing the spread of misinformation online. The enforcement of these policies has, however, led to technology companies being regularly accused of political bias. We argue that even under politically neutral anti-misinformation policies, such political…

Institutions explain humans’ exceptional levels of cooperation. Yet institutions are at the mercy of the very problem they are designed to solve. They are themselves cooperative enterprises, so to say that institutions stabilize cooperation just begs the question: what stabilizes institutions? Here, we use a mathematical model to show that reputation can sustain institutions without…